Claim

Synonyms: proposition, conclusion, main point, thesis

Answers the Question: “What is the author trying to prove – what’s the bottom line?”

Claims can appear anywhere in the argument or they may be implied (in which case you must identify them by inference). The claim organizes the entire argument; everything else in the argument is related to the claim.

Support

Synonyms: data, grounds, proof, evidence, premises

Answers the Question: “What additional information does the author supply to convince me of this claim?”

The support for the claim provides the evidence, reasoning, opinions, examples, and factual information about the claim that make it possible for the reader to accept it. Support is always explicitly stated and will not have to be inferred. It can appear either before or after the claim and is required to be acceptable and convincing.

Common types of Support:

FACTS

Must be described in written argument

Vivid, real and identifiable

Examples – detailed reports of observed events, specific examples of real happenings, references to events (either historical or recent), and statistical data

OPINIONS

Opinions develop when people start to interpret facts

In argument, interpretation of facts is prevalent – you need to be able to distinguish between parts that are factual, parts everyone would agree on, and parts that represent someone else’s opinion

Opinions can come from the author or from experts the author quotes

Opinions may be formed based on considerable knowledge and excellent judgment or they may be ill-founded and based on hearsay and gossip

EXAMPLES

Can be real or hypothetical (made-up)

Are used to clarify, to make material more memorable and interesting, and to prove

Examples that are real function in the same way facts do – they are convincing because they are grounded in reality

Hypothetical examples are invented by the writer and can only demonstrate probabilities

Warrants

Synonyms: unstated assumptions, presuppositions of the author, unstated premises

Answers the Question: “Where is the author coming from or what is causing the author to think this way?”

Warrants are the assumptions, general principles, widely held values, commonly accepted beliefs and appeals to human motives that are important parts of any argument. They are not written out as part of the argument, which allows an audience a sense of participation in the argument and thus, they are more likely to buy the argument. The audience supplies warrants; if the audience accepts them, the argument is convincing. Warrants are culture bound; they represent the values, beliefs and training typical of individual cultures. They represent the psychology of an argument, in the sense that they reveal the unspoken beliefs and values of the author and invite the reader to examine his or her own beliefs and make comparisons. Warrants link the support to the claim by enabling the audience to accept or justify particular evidence as proof of a particular claim. They also establish links between the author and the audience; shared warrants result in successfully establishing common ground.

Qualifier

Examples: sometimes, maybe, might, many, some, few, possibly, probably

Arguments are not expected to demonstrate certainties. Instead, they usually only establish probabilities. Claims are qualified to meet anticipated objections of an audience.

Backing

Evidence to make questionable warrants acceptable to an audience.

Rebuttal

Answers the Question: “What are the other possible views on this issue?”

Rebuttals establish what is wrong, invalid or unacceptable about an argument, and may also prevent counter-arguments or new arguments which represent entirely different perspectives or points-of-view on the issue. Rebuttals may appear as answers to arguments that have already been stated, or the author may anticipate an audience’s rebuttal and include answers to possible objections before they are stated.